Why Do Managers Plan Free Essays

string(61) added what exactly is usually alluded to as a â€Å"pick-list†. For what reason do Managers Plan 1 Why do Managers Plan? The executives 301 Distance Learning December 07, 2011 Why do Managers Plan 2 Why do Managers Plan? Vital Planning This appears to be a simple theme to examine, yet there is no single explanation that a chief makes arrangements in the workplace. I will cover a few regions wherein directors use arranging, and why it is a basic piece of achieving undertakings, and how it smoothes out procedures fundamental for an association to be effective. In the first place, I will talk about vital arranging: key arranging can likewise be alluded to as â€Å"charting the course† for a business or association. We will compose a custom article test on For what reason Do Managers Plan? or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now A focal piece of key administration is execution estimation (Public Administration Review, December 2010). Not at all like private segment business associations, numerous legislature and open offices have created execution estimations without creating key plans. I imagine this is principally because of the framework that is set up in most government or open offices, and the measure of formality that goes with government ran organizations. As to private division, I accept that having a key intend to manage administrators and pioneers in the dynamic procedure permits them to distinguish elective advances or measures to take if something in the business procedure changes that they have no immediate command over. Supervisors who build up a key arrangement additionally are probably going to perceive that the final product can't be their solitary concern, yet they distinguish achievements that must be met along the ay, or during the procedure to use as an estimation instrument to decide whether they are gaining positive ground or in the event that they have to analyze â€Å"glitches† that will defer or negatively affect the business procedure. One device to quantify execution is a â€Å"Balanced Scorecard†. It is grounded in the possibility that the estimation Why do Managers Plan 3 of an organization’s execution should consider the procedures and assets expected to deliver results, just as the results themselves. Here and there, its accentuation on sources of info and yields is a stage back in execution estimation, yet that progression is intended to assist associations with satisfying the outcomes guaranteed. (Open Administration Review, December 2010). I accept this is an essential advance, if not the initial phase in arranging that will help guarantee a business or association has a set way that will improve their conceivable outcomes of progress. Information Management in Organizational Planning is the following region that I need to examine. At the point when individuals talk about administrators making arrangements for activities or procedures in a business or association almost certainly, they are alluding to plans that incorporate estimates. This kind of arranging is fitting if the fate of or in the business condition is steady; in any case, this isn't generally the situation with numerous organizations since they face business conditions that are unpredictable and shaky (Knowledge Management in Organizational Planning, January 1987). With this being the situation in many business conditions today, the initiative of these organizations keep on pursueing arranging and guaging instruments and innovation that will help them when they are creating key and hierarchical plans. Information the executives may likewise be alluded to as Management Information Systems (MIS). This is a PC program or system that was created for the executives and administration individuals to use for the motivations behind arranging and may have instances of past arranging occasions or tasks that the current administrators can use to help them in the arranging and dynamic procedure. One huge favorable position of this kind of framework is that it can give authentic information that permits great wanting to be done from the earliest starting point, and this may improve the likelihood of accomplishment of an undertaking or creation process Why do Managers Plan 4 dependent on the past exercises discovered that are thought about when building up the current arrangement. The MIS was created to help administrators in social affair data, producing thoughts and choices and furthermore for examining this data and looking over among the contending choices. This MIS is simply one more instrument to underline why supervisors plan. Another zone that arranging is significant for chiefs is multi-venture arranging and asset control. This region is additionally identified with the region of big business asset arranging (ERP). Both of these zones require the utilization of business arranging instruments to make the manager’s occupation of making arrangements for required materials and assets a lot simpler to oversee using innovation and PC programs. One of the most testing parts of a manager’s work is to guarantee that he/she adequately oversees tasks or creation forms without depleting the organization’s constrained assets (Multiproject Planning and Resource Controls, December 2006). At the point when we discuss administrators, I think understand that supervisors are in all businesses including retail, creation, assembling, and development to give some examples, and the one basic connection that they all offer is arranging. Arranging is the bedrock or establishment that directors must set up as a beginning stage regardless of the business which they work. The significant pieces of arranging that are identified with multi-task and ERP the board are recognizing the assets expected to begin and support work procedures to wipe out misfortune time because of a deficiency of assets, and how the ERP framework cooperates with other interior business frameworks to improve the arranging of the executives. A case of this could be that the ERP framework interfaces the upkeep extends that are by and large effectively worked with the gracefully or demanding procedure to guarantee that required assets, for example, materials and devices are being requested to meet the undertaking or employment prerequisites. The ERP framework Why do Managers Plan 5 can be modified to perceived or recognize things required dependent on work number or sequential numbers identified with explicit parts of the activity that were distinguished during the underlying arranging period of the activity or undertaking. The things that would be requested because of this arranging would be added whatever is usually alluded to as a â€Å"pick-list†. You read For what reason Do Managers Plan? in classification Papers This piece of the ERP framework is known as the collaboration among structure and human activity and is known as the â€Å"duality of structure, which just methods (for this situation) the connection between the ERP framework (for the most part oversaw by a materials director), the requesting of assets (between materials administrator and merchants), and correspondence between the venture or creation supervisor and the framework (real contribution to the framework) (business profits by ERP frameworks, Staehr, 2008). The ERP frameworks capacity to distinguish this procedure in just conceivable because of the underlying arranging that was performed by the administrator accountable for the undertakings or forms, and imparted and arranged with the materials director to guarantee the framework was interfaced to the procedures. I have really utilized an ERP framework called SAP, and these sorts of frameworks require a ton of preparing and â€Å"hands on† work since they can be exceptionally perplexing to utilize. Another critical and applicable arranging instrument that administrators can utilize is the Production Planning Model. This PPM may likewise be alluded to as Material Requirement Planning (MRP). The MRP is a crucial device for supervisors who function as upkeep chiefs, creation directors, or activities administrators. Administrators utilize the MRP to recognize the measure of extra parts that should be either â€Å"on hand† or immediately obtained to guarantee there is restricted or no gear down-time because of the absence of parts to make required fixes for process hardware. It is significant that administrators who work in these kinds of situations are the procedure supervisor, yet the arranging director. I cause the Why to do Managers Plan 6 past articulation in light of the fact that the administrator who builds up the operational or procedure plans should utilize the types of gear recorded information to recognize operational and down-time patterns. They ought to likewise utilize Bills of Materials (BOMs) to distinguish parts that will be bound to flop because of the measure of utilization, or are progressively vulnerable to wear from constant use in the activity or procedure. This point is critical to examine on the grounds that numerous plants or offices may have the ability to produce parts in their own machine shops, and this can be a cost investment funds measure just as an efficient measure. This is the reason it is significant that the arranging chief recognize this as a chance or an inclination during the arranging period of the activity to be performed. Utilizing MRP enables makes and supervisors to decide unequivocally when and how much material to buy and procedure dependent on a period staged examination of deals orders, creation orders, current stock, and conjectures (Production arranging model, April 2009). MRP decides material prerequisites dependent on ace creation and arranging plans which are utilized related to each other to guarantee a proficient work process. An essential explanation that chiefs utilize the creation arranging model is to lessen the degrees of parts or merchandise close by. At the end of the day, if appropriate arranging is performed before beginning the activity or creation process the chief will have the option to decide the parts required/required from start to finishing of the procedure and spare stock expenses by just having the necessary parts close by with no overabundance. When it is resolved how much item will be created it makes it a lot simpler to decide the measure of parts or extra parts that will be required. At the point when chiefs are making arrangements for a creation run it is significant for them to know about an

Risk and Joint Ventures: Questions and Answers

Hazard and Joint Ventures: Questions and Answers List of chapters (Jump to) There are four kinds of global dangers. Specifically (a) Cross-social hazard; (b) Country chance; (c) Currency hazard and (d) business chance. Quickly portray each these dangers. Clarify the favorable circumstances and burdens of a joint-adventure or key organization. Why is air transportation and air express so broadly utilized in sending out when sea transportation is a lot less expensive? Entering another market through permitting is commonly the best procedure since advertise possibilities can be tried with practically no venture. Remark. Quickly clarify why has universal exchange agrarian items been extending at a more slow rate than fares of assembling merchandise? A worldwide firm needs to have unlimited authority over its auxiliaries so as to utilize its assets and contend most adequately. Remark. References There are four kinds of worldwide dangers. In particular (a) Cross-social hazard; (b) Country chance; (c) Currency hazard and (d) business chance. Quickly depict each these dangers. Multifaceted hazard: Diverse hazard recognizes the danger of alteration of various two societies. In global business divisions more often than not troughs send their talented and wise workers to the outside areas with the goal that they can assume a crucial job in the business reason. Be that as it may, at times representatives just as supervisor neglect to comprehend the nearby need and request through their social example (Moore, 1983). At that point they can't change with their outside condition. They may discover food uniqueness, way of life issue and numerous others think. Nation hazard: Nation hazard is a term which is utilized to characterize the likely danger of putting resources into outside nation. In the field of universal or worldwide promoting organization needs to put a ton of cash in the outside nation. In any case, some time the administration or neighborhood individuals may conflict with the organization. So in outcomes the organization needs to scarify their benefit or even speculation. Mass uproar or social and affordable turmoil of the nation bring gigantic misfortune. Cash hazard: Cash hazard is likewise famously known as remote trade chance. In the part of global showcasing a fixed cost is constantly set by the two segments to import or fare. In any case, because of catastrophic events and worldwide weight this fixed valued can be exceptionally changed. So one of the different sides needs to convey the misfortune. Household expansion and financial agitation will influence this division seriously. Business chance: Business chance is the vulnerability or the likelihood of the arrival of the interest in the outside nation. In the field of global business all organizations conjecture their likely pace of return or the benefit so they can comprehend their future in the market (Pearson, 1987). In any case, team to political agitation, change in the customers living stander and the alteration of the administration guideline may influence it gravely. Clarify the focal points and inconveniences of a joint-adventure or vital association. Bit of leeway of the joint endeavor Joint endeavor is the ongoing imaginative and compelling method of get together of two organizations. It gives a ton of offices to the two sides that’s why the quantity of joint endeavor organizations is expanding step by step. It offers both organization to utilize their development and innovative progression. It additionally gives chance to utilize others local commercial center. So the quantity of purchasers will increment. As imaginative thoughts are bring out additional in this divisions capability can be accomplished through new mechanical improvement (Hall, 1984). The joint endeavor encourages the two organizations to utilize more noteworthy normal assets, and progressively master representatives. That will definitely expand their creation sum. It likewise offers to their accomplices to share their common hazard. Another significant preferred position is being flexible in the market place.Any organization can act to their customers rapidly and completely through joint e ndeavor. Joint endeavor additionally assists with understanding the new market rapidly and without any problem. Weakness of joint endeavor: A few negative marks are additionally connected with the joint endeavor creation. It is hard and almost difficult to locate an appropriate accomplice for the joint endeavor. It requires some investment and endeavors to discover fitting joint endeavor accomplice. Behind reasons of this issue might be a ton. Indistinct points of the joint endeavor area might be the main explanation. At that point all gatherings may not be intrigued to the point. The points of the joint endeavor must be comparing in any case nobody will show intrigue. Difference of the assets and the lopsidedness of the innovative headway are likewise powerful reasons not to be a piece of joint endeavor (Paakkunainen, 1992). Divergence and the poor organization framework likewise clear the demoralization of joint endeavor. Absence of careful research and poor support framework are likewise liable for this. Why is air transportation and air express so broadly utilized in sending out when sea transportation is a lot less expensive? Transportation is the greatest piece of current universal business parts. Brisk reaction, modest expense and the appearance intensity of remote region are the pivotal elements of transportation areas. Considering all other framework it very well may be effortlessly said air transportation framework is utilized consistently and progressively. The explanations for this are many. Brisk reaction is the most significant and viable standard in this divisions. Every single clinical hardware and medication are for the most part moved through air express as a result of their call to arrive at need. Another significant factor is remote zone arriving at power (Puffer, 1941). All electronic and transient products are shipped via air express. It additionally conveys the items time worth and need. For fast reaction the client can get the most recent item and administration so they lean toward the upgraded one as opposed to old one. So to snatch new developing business sector the vast majority of t he retailers like air express. So for delicate and extravagance item air express is must. Then again ocean transportations are modest yet so tedious. What's more, item like day by day wares and superfluous item are shipped through ocean transportation. It takes three to four days for conveying a few items then again air express will take scarcely any hours to arrive at the spot. Awful and eccentric climate is another explanation of diminishing s the utilization of ocean transportation. As of late the pirates’ issue has expanded in a disturbing rate so merchandisers like air express over ocean transportation (Bailey, 2009). It is difficult to follow the conveyance in ocean transportation which is another explanation of debilitating ocean shipment. Entering another market through authorizing is commonly the best methodology since showcase possibilities can be tried with almost no venture. Remark. Permitting is a broadly utilized term in the field of worldwide promoting. Explicitly authorizing is the way toward giving application or allowing other gathering to utilize own licensed innovation like logo, trademark, witticism and some other brand name. The gathering who conceded authorization to utilize is called licensor and the other party who get the consent of utilizing this property is known as licensee. All things considered permitting is a decent term for the new comer in the business areas. Not many individuals trust the new comer in the global business divisions. So it is so extreme for them to remain on business.Moreover new condition and new customers’ demeanor step through an intense examination from the new comer (Sherman, 1999). So to investigate the full plan of action of the neighborhood condition and become well known in entering position permitting is the best procedure. Another significant and critical assistance to organization is to clear the channel t o work with readymade client and with their trust.Licensing additionally assists his with banding together by demonstrating the free publicizing which can be exorbitant and incapable. So naturally they will get new and potential client to serve and get notoriety. So as far as possible permitting give basic offices like present and future client, free adverting and market generosity with little or with no cash cost. Quickly clarify why has worldwide exchange horticultural items been extending at a more slow rate than fares of assembling merchandise? In present day business divisions all items and administrations are remembered for worldwide showcasing. They can be partitioned in two classes. First might be farming items and the second can be fabricating items. In any case, contrasting and fabricating items, agrarian items are sent out in a negligible rate. The principle explanations for this are the clients living example. Basically horticultural items are the principle base of their employment. They can only with significant effort change it. Or then again they are not intrigued to transform it. So the entirety of their essential work things are delivered by ones local nation (Foley, 1999). What's more, they are created in a high sum. So they don’t need to import them from other nation. Also, another explanation of moderate fare proportion is that the horticultural items are not all that appropriate to store for a long transportation without utilizing humorous which is profoundly unhygienic for wellbeing. So no nation ne eds to rely upon others about their fundamental rural food. They attempt to create them without anyone else. Another explanation might be beneficial side. Horticultural items may not be so beneficial for the exporter. It cost a ton to create yet the expense is about like the whole province all through the world. Agrarian items set aside long effort to be created and need more space. Then again fabricating items give the upper hand to the producer. They can be created a great deal if sum in brief timeframe by gouge of improved innovation. That can be created after the fare request and it require some investment to convey. They can be put away for quite a while. And furthermore their transportation office is simple (Paul, 2008). So considering each one of those components the assembling items get higher need to e

How to Have Fun This Summer on a Budget

How to Have Fun This Summer on a Budget How to Have Fun This Summer on a Budget How to Have Fun This Summer on a BudgetVacations are great for your mental and physical health, but not so much for your bank account. So check out these cheap entertainment alternatives instead!Summer is a time to enjoy the nice weather and take some time for yourself to unwind and relax. For some, that means annual summer sojourns to distant countries or all-inclusive cruises to tropical islands. But for those of us on a budget or working to save for things like weddings or emergency fundsâ€"or working to pay down debt from  no credit check loans or bad credit loansâ€"a destination vacation is just not in the cards.While that doesn’t mean you can’t have fun this summer. Plus, taking some time to enjoy your summer is important because vacations from work have been shown to improve our mental and physical health. The average American takes only eight days off a year, even when their employers offer more paid time off than that. According to an NPR poll, less than half of American workers with paid time off have used the majority of their days!We’re here to encourage you to take a few days this summer to take a thrifty (often free!) staycation, one of the best ways to enjoy yourself and still save money. You don’t have to travel far to discover the best of what your area has to offer. And don’t worry. We realize that many people don’t get paid time offâ€"according to that NPR poll, this disproportionally affects low-wage workers, only 53 percent of whom report received paid time off.That’s why many of these suggestions can be enjoyed on the weekends or whatever day of the week you’re off the clock!1. Enjoy your community’s free entertainment.Whether you live in a big city or a small town, most communities have free summer programming. We are lucky that our headquarters is in Chicago, where there are free neighborhood festivals almost every weekend as well as free city-wide programming like Chicago Shakespeare in the Parks, Movies in the Park, t he Millenium Park Summer Music Seriesâ€"not to mention the big summer festivals like the Chicago Blues Festival, Printers Row Lit Fest, and the Taste of Chicago.But you need not live in or near a big city to get your festival onâ€"you may not even realize how many events your town puts on. This writer, for one, was surprised to learn that in addition to the car cruises and corn festivals she attended as a youth, her small hometown now offers a craft beer fest, movies in the park, farmers markets, and outdoor concerts featuring local talent all summer long.And don’t forget state and county fairs! And if you happen to live near a fairgrounds, it’s likely that they also host free or inexpensive programmingâ€"circuses, antiques and flea markets, dog and cat shows, motocross, demolition derbies, charitable marathons, and more! Choose something you’d never think to do. This can be the summer of new experiences. All you need is a sense of humor.If there is an expensive festival or co ncert that you’d love to attend in your area but cannot afford to, look into volunteering. These types of events often offer discounted tickets or free admission for volunteers, as long as they put in the hours.2. Learn about the history of your area.While we’re on the subject of your community, you can also take some time to get to know its history a little better. Local historical societies and neighborhood associations often host walking tours (or have self-guided tours on their websites) of their areas.Pick a nice day, and take a stroll through the town (or one nearby) you thought you had a pretty good fix on. Chances are, you’ll learn something you never knew before. These same organizations often have free- or low-admissions museums, zoos, and tours of historic buildingsâ€"a lovely way to spend an afternoon.Don’t forget to check out the offerings at your local parks. County and state parks often have their own list of free or inexpensive summer programming, whether its a festival or a historical re-enactment. This writer, for example, is planning to attend an authentic vintage baseball game (original 1858 rules) hosted by a nearby county park this summer.3. Attend a sporting event.Speaking of sports, watching a game can be a fun and thrifty way to spend a summer afternoon or evening, even if you don’t really like or pay attention to sports (she did not say from experience). Get your friends or family together and make a day of it! It might not be as expensive as you think.Let’s take baseball, America’s favorite pastime, for example. Many areas have minor league or farm teams, which you can watch for a fraction of the price of your local professional team. These places frequently have promotional nights with cheaper tickets and/or concessions, so plan your trip ahead.If you happen to live in an area where the sports team isâ€"umâ€"less than popular, you may be able to snag seats for a steal. At White Sox games, for instance, tickets start at around seven bucks. Seven bucks! Don’t let anyone tell you that you can’t have fun in the nosebleeds.Plus, if your local stadium is like the White Sox’s, they’ll let you tailgate AND bring in food and water, as long as you follow their guidelines. Sometimes, it pays to support the underdog.4. Give nature a chance.You know those state and county parks we mentioned earlier? You can enjoy them even if you don’t attend their programming. Many have nature centers to learn about the environment, but you can also hike, ride a bike, rent a kayak, fish, camp, pack a picnic, and more. The forest, streams, and lakes are nature’s television. Binge on that this summer!Take a day trip to explore your area’s unique environment, whether it’s a beach, the forest, giant sand dunes, the desert, the prairie, or the swamp. Learn about the plants and animals that live there and go on a scavenger hunt of sorts. While you are in nature, consider looking upward: Plan to view a sunrise, suns et, the starry night sky, or a meteor shower.As an added bonus, spending time in nature is proven to have health benefitsâ€"such as lowering blood pressure, improving mental health, decreasing cancer risk, and more.Remember, if a multiday destination vacation is not in the budget for you this summer, there are still plenty of fun, thrifty, and free things to do right where you live. Don’t forget the sunscreen!To learn more about saving money on everyday expenses, check out  these other posts and articles from OppLoans:Save Money This Summer by Saving EnergySave a Few Bucks on Fido with These DIY Pet ToysReusable Purchases That Will Save You Money in the Long RunHow to Use the Library to Save MoneyDo you have a personal finance question youd like us to answer? Let us know! You can find us  on  Facebook  and  Twitter.  |Instagram

The Klan s Organized Terrorism - 1114 Words

The Ku Klux Klan had three eras, an era ends when the Ku Klux Klan movement dies out or they loss the need for it. Each era may have its own intentions or what their main goal is, but white supremacy is still their goal just trying to accomplish it in different ways, while also opposing thing that may go against their moral code, like gay marriage. The Ku Klux Klan is an origination focused on having white supremacy, it has existed for many years and has had three eras, it is most known for its act violent acts of terrorism. The first era Ku Klux Klan was formed in Tennessee on December 1865 at the end of the civil war. The Ku Klux Klan was formed as a movement for white supremacy. It was formed as a violent group that relied on fear tactics to stay in power. As Jonathan M. Bryant said in an article â€Å"The Klan s organized terrorism began most notably on March 31, 1868, when Republican organizer George Ashburn was murdered in Columbus, Georgia.† George W. Ashburn (1814 - March 30, 1868) was a Georgia politician assassinated by the Ku Klux Klan in Columbus, Georgia for his pro-African-American sentiments. He was the first murder victim of the Klan in Georgia. This the first of the Klan’s organized terrorism it was soon followed by more. For the violence Ku Klux Klan choose to invoke, as Southern Poverty Law Center said. â€Å"lynching’s, tar, and featherings, rapes, and other violent arracks on those challenging white supremacy became a hallmark of the Klan.† The Ku Klux Klan wasShow MoreRelatedThe Ku Klux Klan. Cody Weber : Honors American History Essay1164 Words   |  5 Pages The Ku Klux Klan Cody Weber Honors American History Period 8 The Ku Klux Klan took a stand against equal rights for African Americans in a negative and racial manner by assaulting and abusing them. By doing this, the KKK wanted to make them feel like a lesser race. The KKK was founded in 1865 by six college students in the small town of Pulaski, Tennessee. 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I am researching the Ku Klux Klan in Harrison, Aransas . I will discuss what the group is, how they made their second phase in Harrison, Arkansas, the Reconstruction, and their involvement in Harrison, Arkansas today.Read MoreFederal Bureau Of Investigation ( Fbi ) Defines Terrorism1693 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The federal bureau of investigation (FBI) defines terrorism as the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, and/or any segment thereof. If one makes the argument that BLM is a terrorist group the ideology of the movement must fit within the framework stated above. First, BLM stands for â€Å"Black Lives Matter†. It, in itself is nothing more than a concept about which all else revolves. It is true, theRead MoreInterpreting The Clansm A Historical Romance Of The Ku Klux Klan And The Kloran1563 Words   |  7 PagesA Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan and the â€Å"Kloran† Thomas Dixon Jr. wrote The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan (or simply The Clansman) which was based largely on his background in religion. He was a Southern Baptist minister. The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) is a Christian denomination based in the United States. It is the world s largest Baptist denomination and the largest Protestant body in the United States. The Ku Klux Klan is fundamentally a white supremacist

Study On Discounted Cash Flow Techniques Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1817 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? In current practice, managers use DCF (discounted cash flow) and Traditional method analysis to estimate the investment in financial terms. In DCF method considers the time value of money in which reduces the time value of money progressively and it consist with NPV (Net Present Value) approach and IRR (Internal Rate of Return method). This could lead to more popularize investment appraisal techniques among the managers. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Study On Discounted Cash Flow Techniques Finance Essay" essay for you Create order A valuation method used to evaluate the attractiveness of an investment opportunity. DCF analysis uses future free cash flow projections and discounts them (most often using the weighted average cost of capital) to arrive at a present value, which is used to evaluate the potential for investment. If the value arrived at through DCF analysis is higher than the current cost of the investment, the opportunity may be a good one. Net Present Value The NPV which based on a required rate of return to each years projected cash flow, both in and out, is the application of discount factors. If the NPV is negative, the project should be rejected and if positive, the required rate of return is likely to be earned and the project should be accepted. NPV is especially appropriate for long-term projects, ranking investments by NPV does not compare absolute levels of investment. For Strengths of NPV by considering the time value of money, it also takes factors, like interest rates, cost of capital and investment opportunity costs into account. NPV not looks at profits and losses the way accounting systems do, it looks at cash flows. It can be tricky to determine and highly sensitive to the discount percentage. The technique works by discounting a projects cash flows by the Cost of Capital set by the organization. Each cash inflow and/or outflow is discounted back to its PV. Then they are summed. Each cash inflow and/or outfl ow is discounted back to its present value (PV). NPV = PV-costs (period, cash flow) pairs (n, Cn) where n is a positive integer, the total number of periods N, and the net present value NPV, the internal rate of return is given by r The NPV rule states that a project should be undertaken should its NPV be positive (Ross et al, 2005). The NPV rule includes the cost of capital or the discount rate to helping to take risk into account and covering any uncertain cash flows that may arise. It only includes the relevant costs, and it only takes these costs when they occur. The NPV rule uses cash flows instead of earnings, it uses all the cash flows of a project, and it discounts the cash flows with regards to the time value of money. Other forms of investment appraisal tend to ignore at least one, if not more, of these points. The NPV rule also provides a clear rule over the acceptance or rejection of a project. However, only future costs are taken into the analysis. This means t hat past costs are ignored because they do not vary with future decisions. There is also a heavy reliance on the discount rate, often difficult to calculate, and as a result, the cash flows can be complicated to predict. Cash flows are usually assumed to take place at the end of each year, but in practice, this is an over-simplification of the issue (Irons, 2004). Internal Rate or Return (IRR) The definition of IRR is based on NPV. In general terms, IRR is the value for r when the NPV equal to zero. This can be formulated as below   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€š It is the method favored by many accountants and finance people, possibly the ones at your company. It provides a simple hurdle rate for investment decision-making. It is not as easy to understand as some measures and not as easy to compute. Computational anomalies can produce misleading results, particularly with regard to reinvestments. Having calculated the IRR the company can then accept any projects with an interest rate lower than the IRR and reject any projects with an interest rate higher than the IRR. NPV is highly sensitive to the discount rate, while IRR bypasses the problem of deciding the correct one. IRR is very good for screening projects. IRR is not an absolute amount, its a rate or ratio that more useful for comparing unlike investments, say stocks and bonds. It also more useful for making international comparisons, and comparisons between different periods and different sized firms. The intention here is not to argue for either point of view, but instead to put the issue into balance. Conclusion The aim of Investment appraisal is to help companies make decisions on which project they should invest in. Investment decisions involves making an outlay of something of economic value, usually cash, which the outlay precedes to benefits, so it is vitally important to a business. If a wrong decision is made, the effects on the business could be significant and it might also mean closing down the activity and sell the premises at a significant loss. According to above discussions, discount cash flow techniques have their own advantages and disadvantages. They normally based on some assumptions and reliable forecasting of key values. So its really important and necessary to choose the right and suitable method. Q2. Appraisal Methods for AP Ltd a) AP Ltd. is trying to evaluate 4 new projects. Assume all the 4 projects have a useful life of 10 years. For every business to know where they should invest their money it is essential to research what they should do. There are few main methods of appraisal that should be looked at: 1)  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Annual Net Cash flow 2)  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Initial Investment 3)  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Cost of Capital 4)  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 5) Net Present Value (NPV) Calculations I am going to use following form to calculate all those answers. ACF(Annual Cash flow)ÃÆ'Æ’-Present value Interest Factor of Annuity (PVIFA)-I.I(Initial Investment)=NPV PVIFA = 1-(1+r)ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¾ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¿ or table of PVIFA r Where r = interest rate n = number of periods A) IRR is the value for r when the NPV equal to zero. PVIFA = 0+I.I = 449.400 = 4.494 ACF 100.000 In the PVIFA table, 4.494 in the 10years row equal 18%, which is the IRR for the investment project. So the answer of A is 18% B) The Annual Cash flow in project 1 is  £100,000, Initial Investment is  £449.400 and the Cost of Capital is 14% which equal to 5.216 in the PVIFA table , to calculate the NPV of project we can use the formula as below. NPV = ACFÃÆ'Æ’-PVIFA-I.I =100,000ÃÆ'Æ’-5.216-449.400 =72,200 So the answer of B is  £72.200 C) In project 2, the IRR is 20% of 10 years life time. Then we can found the PVIFA of project 2 is 4.192 from the PVIFA table. And according to the definition of the IRR, we can use the kind of expression as below Cost of Capital = ACFÃÆ'Æ’-IRR20%,10years =70,000ÃÆ'Æ’-4.192 =293,400 So the answer of C is  £293,400 D) We already known the PVIFA14%, 10years is 5.216 and Initial Investment is  £293,400. So the NPV can be formulated as NPV = ACFÃÆ'Æ’-PVIFA-II =70,000ÃÆ'Æ’-5.216-293,400 =71,720 So the answer of D is  £71,720 E) The IRR of project 3 is 14%, and we know PVIFA14%, 10year is 5.216 . In this situation, we can follow the equation as below Net cash flow = Initial investment = 200,000 ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€¹Ã¢â‚¬    £38,344 PVIFA14%, 10yr 5.216 So the answer of E is  £38,344 F) Now we know ACF of project is  £38,344, so we can calculate F as follows F= NPV+II = 35,624+200,000 = 6.145 ACF 38,344 Then looking for the PVIFA 6.145 in the 10 years row of PVIFA table, we can find tha t this value equal to 10% which is the Cost of Capital for project 3. So the answer of F is 10% G)According to the table PVIFA12%, 10year is 5.650, and Initial Investment is  £300,000 in project 4. Net cash flow = NPV +I.I = 39,000+300,000 = 60.000 PVIFA14%, 10yers 5.650 So the answer of G is  £60.000 H ) PIVFA= 0+I.I = 300,000 = 5 ACF 60,000 According the PVIFA table, the PVIFA 10years of 5.0 in is 15%, which means internal rate of return for the investment project 4. So the answer of H is 15% b) Both NPV and IRR methods valuable and favorable guides in business practice. Both the IRR and the NPV take account of time value of money, but situations arise where the IRR method leads to different decisions being made from those that would implement the NPV method. However, In some cases, a project with a higher NPV can produce a lower IRR. As in this part, the IRR and NPV method are not always agreed. First, compare the three project 2,3 and 4, we can easy to find that the project 2, which has greater IRR, also get greater NPV. The method of IRR and NPV are agreed. Obviously, for the AP Ltd, the project 2 is better than the project 3 and 4. Second, compare the project 1 with the project 2, the IRR and NPV method are offering conflicting recommendations. The project 2 has greater IRR than the project 1 whereas the project 1 has larger NPV than the project. why the NPV and IRR methods are getting conflicting recommendations and which one we should choose? Conflicting recommendations can be occurred, because projects have differences in size and/or cash flow timing. When one project is larger than another one, the bigger project can has a larger NPV but a smaller IRR, while the smaller project may get a larger IRR but smaller NPV (Emery et al, 2007). As in this case, the project 1 has larger NPV, but smaller IRR than the project 2. In generally, the project which get larger NPV is better. Therefore the method of NPV is superior to the method of IRR, when mutually exclusive projects differ in size. The problem of the difference in cash flow timing is caused by the reinvestment rate assumption (Emery et al, 2007). The method of IRR assumes that the future cash flow of the project can reinvest at the IRR, while use the method of NPV to imply that they are going to earn the cost of capital. And the best assumptions is the one which made my the method of NPV. Because if the project generate the business organization use the cash flow, the organi zation doesnt need borrow money from the other place. In other way, the cost of capital is the opportunity cost of the funds. Again, the method of NPV is superior and has better assumption. Conclusion When using NPV to guide an investment decision, a firm needs to estimate the future cash flow and the return required by its investors. According to finance theory the return required depends on the projects risk and required by the investors is often referred to as the firms cost of capital. Projects offer rates of return less than the cost of capital are not worthwhile undertaking financially, and the return Investment projects offer rates of return higher than the cost of capital add value to the firm. According to those above considerations and the results of the investment appraisal techniques, I would recommend the project 1 for AP Ltd. Because it has a larger NPV and from the financial view that it has the highest return on investment.

Biology By2 Revision Free Essays

Parasitic Nutrition 21 May 2011 10:43 = organisms that live on or in another organism obtaining nourishment at the expense of the host and causing harm. Gut parasite (Taenia solium) = tapeworm Primary host = human (eat uncooked infected pork) Secondary host = pig (drainage channels contaminated by human faeces) Adaptations†¦ – Suckers hookers (attachment) – Body covering (immune responses) – Thick cuticle (inhibitory substances = enzymes) – Simple body systems (reproduction) – Very thin large surface area (food absorbed over whole body surface = diffusion) – Male female sex organs (gut can only accommodate 1 tapeworm) – Number of eggs produced (increase chance of survival) – Eggs have resistant shells (survive until eaten) Dormant embryos can form cysts in organs – damage surrounding tissue BY2 revision Page 1 Adaptions to different diets 21 May 2011 10:53 Reptiles Amphibians = swallow food whole Mammals = cut up and chew (palate separates nasal cavity mouth – kept in mouth longer) Carnivore = short gut (easily digest protein) Herbivore = long gut (plant digestion difficult) Dentition Mechanical digestion = easier to swallow increases surface area for enzyme action Herbivore Incisors Canines Lower jaw, cuts against horny pad (upper jaw) Indistinguishable from incisors Carnivore Sharp (tear flesh from bone) Large, curved, pointed = seizing prey, killing tearing flesh Carnassial (slide past each other = garden shears) molars = cutting/crushing) Vertical (open wide to capture kill prey) Not horizontal (dislocation) Jaw muscles = well developed/powerful (grip firmly on prey/crush bones) Cheek teeth Interlock. (W into M) Worn down = sharp enamel ridges (efficiency). We will write a custom essay sample on Biology By2 Revision or any similar topic only for you Order Now Open roots (grinding) Jaw movement Other Circular grinding. Horizontal plane Diastema = gap between front side teeth. Tongue moves cut grass to grinding surfaces (cheek teeth) Ruminants Produce most protein eaten by humans eg. Cows/sheep Mutualism/Symbiosis = close association between members of 2 species, both derive some benefit from the relationship. – Can’t digest cellulose (no cellulose enzymes) – Cellulose-digesting bacteria live in gut of cow – Separated = food left long enough for digestion, bacteria isolated (optimum pH conditions) Cellulose digestion†¦ – Grass chopped (teeth), saliva, cud formed, swallowed – 1st stomach = cellulose digesting bacteria (glucose = fermented – organic acids into blood. Waste = co2 methane – Cud into next region, regurgitated chewed again – 3rd stomach = water absorption – 4th stomach (‘normal’ stomach) = protein digestion – Small intestine = absorption Rumen = greater variety of mutualistic organisms than in caecum More efficient = more complete breakdown of cellulose Bacteria = source of protein when dead BY2 revision Page 2 Digestion 21 May 2011 11:35 = the break down of large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble molecules. Physical chemical. Food passes through alimentary canal where it is digested absorbed into the body. Digestive enzymes = hydrolases (catalyse hydrolysis of substrate – addition of water) – Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) disaccharides monosaccharides (Amylase = maltose glucose) – Proteins polypeptides dipeptides amino-acids (peptidase = endo/exo) – Fats fatty acids glycerol (lipase) Mouth (buccal cavity) – Mechanical digestion (teeth) †“ Saliva = salivary lands (mucus, salivary amylase mineral ions = optimum pH – slightly alkaline) = lubrication some protein digestion (amylase = starch maltose) – Swallowed as bolus Oesophagus – Peristaltic contractions (longitudinal circular muscles = not under conscious control) – Occurs all way through alimentary canal Stomach = muscular sac (2 sphincter muscles = cardiac pyloric keep food in stomach) – Muscles in stomach wall contract rhythmically (mix food with gastric juice = secreted by stomach wall) – Gastric juice = optimum pH of enzymes (pH2. 0), kills most bacteria, peptidase enzymes = protein polypeptides Pepsinogen (inactive) = activated by HCl to active peptidase enzyme – Mucus = form lining (protect wall from enzymes acid/assist movement) – Food leaves as chyme – Purpose of HCl = optimum pH for enzymes, kill microbes, activate pepsinogen (pepsin) Gastric glands = peptic/chief cells (pepsinogen = inactive until HCl), oxyntic (secretes HCl) goblet cells (mucus) Small Intestine = duodenum (first 20cm) ileum Bile = produced in liver, stored in gall bladder, into duodenum via bile duct. = no enzymes. Bile salts = emulsifying lipids (lowers surface tension = globules – droplets [surface area]) = neutralise acidity = exocrine glands in Pancreas via Pancreatic duct. = Contains enzymes. Trypsinogen – Trypsin (Enterokinase) = Endopeptidases (protein peptides) Pancreatic Amylase (starch maltose) Pancreatic Lipase (lipids fatty acids glycerol) Pancreatic juice Walls of duodenum = Brunner’s Glands (secrete alkaline juice mucus) – correct pH lubrication/protection Enzymes secreted by cells at tips of villi (Crypts of Lieberkuhn) Maltase = Maltose 2 Glucose Sucrase = sucrose glucose galactose Endopeptidases/Exopeptidases = polypeptides amino acids Endo = quaternary/tertiary – smaller polypeptides. Exo = peptides – amino acids Absorption Ileum adapted†¦ – Long BY2 revision Page 3 – Long Lining folded = large surface area Villi = finger like projections Epithelial cells = surface of villi (microscopic projections – microvilli) Large number of mitochondria = lots of energy required Glucose Amino-acids = epithelium of villi (diffusion active transport) into capillary network – hepatic portal vein to liver Fatty acids Glycerol = lacteal (blindly ending lymph capillary) – lymphatic system into bloodstream (thoracic duct) Fatty acids, Glycerol most vitamins = diffusion through epithelial cell membrane Glucose, Amino acids dipeptides = need ATP (energy) – co-transport (Na+ ion) Dipeptides digested intracellularly-pump ions out and then draws more in – carries molecules in with it. Large intestine – Caecum, Appendix, Colon Rectum – Water mineral salts absorbed in colon – vitamins secreted by micro-organisms (vitamin K folic acid (Vitamin B9) – Faeces = semi-solid condition (undigested cellulose, bacteria, sloughed cells) – defaecation Uses†¦ Soluble food products – bloodstream – tissues (assimilation/provide energy) – Glucose = energy release (respiration)/excess stored (fat cells) – Amino Acids = protein-synthesis. Cannot be stored (deaminated – urea {disposed} carbs {stored}) – Lipids = membranes/hormones/excess stored as fat BY2 revision Page 4 Structure of the gut 24 May 2011 08:52 Peristalsis = aids movement of food through alimentary canal 1) 2) 3) 4) Ingestion Digestion (mechanical = increase surface area/chemical = enzymes, glands in wall/outside wall) Absorption Egestion Structure of Mammalian Gut – Outer serosa = layer of connective tissue (protection/reduces friction from other organs as it moves) – Muscle layer = inner circular/outer longitudinal muscles = peristalsis – Sub-mucosa = connective tissue, contains blood/lymph vessels – absorption nerves (co-ordinate muscular contractions – peristalsis) – Mucosa = innermost layer (lines wall of gut), secretes mucus (lubrication protection), secretes digestive juices in some regions (stomach)/absorbs food (ileum) – Lumen = cavity of gut BY2 revision Page 5 Glands 1) Large glands outside gut – secretions pass through tubes/ducts into lumen Eg. Salivary gland, liver, pancreas 2) Glands in form of cells in sub-mucosa Eg. Secrete mucus in duodenum (Brunner’s glands – alkaline juices also) 3) Glands in form of cells in mucosa Eg. Gastric glands(stomach) = gastric juice Crypts of lieberkuhn(in base of villus of small intestine) = enzymes (complete digestion) – maltase = maltose – Sucrase = sucrose – Endopeptidase/exopeptidase = peptides/dipeptides BY2 revision Page 6 Adaptions for nutrition 24 May 2011 09:37 Nutrition = obtain energy to maintain life functions and matter to create/maintain structure (from nutrients) Autotrophic plants Use simple organic materials CO2 H2O to manufacture energy make complex compounds (make own food) – provide food for others = producers Green plants build up complex organic molecules eg sugars from CO2 H2O. Source of energy = sunlight (absorbed in chlorophyll related pigments) [6CO2 +6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2] Use energy from special methods of respiration to synthesize organic food Consume complex organic food material (cannot make own food) = consumers. Take food into bodies and break down by digestion. Usually internal in digestive system. Digested material – absorbed (body tissues – used by cells) Herbivores/Carnivores/Detritivores Dead/decaying matter – no specialized digestive system. Secrete enzymes outside body absorb. (extracellular digestion). Microscopic = decomposers (important recycling valuable nutrients – nitrogen) – Photosynthesis Plants/algae/ certain bacteria Autotrophic bacteria Animals, fungi, some protoctists bacteria Most animals – Chemosynthesis Heterotrophic – Holozoic feeders – Saprophytes (saprobionts) – Parasites – Mutualism (symbiosis) Fungi some bacteria Tapeworm Organism that live in/on another organism and receive nutrition from it. Host suffers harm. Highly specialized. Cellulose Involves close association between members of2 different species. digesting bacteria Both derive some benefit from the relationship BY2 revision Page 7 Reproductive Strategies 24 May 2011 10:08 Life cycle = sequence of changes through which it passes during its life from origin in reproduction until death. Reproduction = ability to produce other individuals of the same species Asexual – Rapidly produces large numbers (identical genetic composition = clone) – Binary fission (eg. Unicellular organisms – bacteria/amoeba) – Budding (eg. Hydra/yeast) – Bulbs (eg. Onion/daffodil) – Runners (eg. Strawberry) – Tubers (eg. Potato) Sexual – Involves 2 parents – Less rapid than asexual – Offspring are genetically different – Fusion of haploid gametes Advantages/Disadvantages†¦ Asexual = lack of variety (adapting to environmental change) = if well suited to environment conditions, large numbers of successful type built up quickly Sexual = genetic variety (adapt to environmental change) = development of resistant stage in life cycle (can withstand adverse conditions) = formation of spores, seeds, larvae = dispersal of offspring. Reduces intraspecific competition – enables genetic variety to develop as required. = more chance of mutation (complexity of process) Production of Gametes Diploid = body cells (mitosis) Haploid = sex cells/gametes (meiosis) Haploid Sperm + Haploid Egg = Diploid Fertilized Egg Zygote formed – mitosis to grow Male gamete = small extremely motile Female gamete = large/sedentary (presence of stored food) Mammalian eggs have only enough to survive until formation of placenta External Fertilization – Discharge gametes directly into sea/freshwater – Considerable wastage = eggs may not encounter sperm – Vast numbers of gametes produced – Frogs – joining of sperm/egg assisted by coupling. Male rubs hind legs on female for her to lay eggs, he immediately releases seminal fluid over them. – Amphibians usually terrestrial, must return to water to breed = external fertilization Internal Fertilization – Occurs inside body of female – Requires intermittent organ to introduce sperm to female’s body – Less chance of gametes being wasted BY2 revision Page 8 – Less chance of gametes being wasted Allows male gamete to be independent of water for movement Fertilized egg can be enclosed with protective covering before leaving female. (Animals lay eggs) Embryos develop within parent and derive nourishment from her (placenta) = greatest adaption (mammals) Development of Zygote – Usually outside body – easy prey for predators – Many eggs produced to ensure some survive – Insects, internal fertilization (ensure sperm deposited in female’s reproductive tract), external development (laid on food source) – Evolution of amniote egg (reptiles/birds) = fluid filled cavity, surrounded by membrane protective shell, encloses embryo within yolk sac – Birds incubate eggs = embryo development (external) – Mammals = young retained in mother’s womb/uterus (no shell). Embryo nourished from mother’s blood supply (placenta). Born in relatively advanced state of development. Parental Care – Very little usually – Stickleback looks after eggs, defends territory, fans eggs to provide o2 until they hatch – Birds mammals = provision of shelter, feeding, protection from predators, training for adult life. More parental care provided = fewer offspring produced Unisexual /Hermaphrodite – Plants = male and female gametes produced in one individual – Every individual capable of forming fertilized eggs – Possibility of self-fertilization = inbreeding (reduced genetic variability) – No intromittent organs – special techniques evolved for transferring gametes Success of Insects – Mainly terrestrial – Depend on these to pollinate crops – Competition for food also – Carry disease eg. Malaria Incomplete Metamorphosis (eg. Grasshopper) – Egg – Intermediate form = nymph (resembles adult – smaller) – Hard exoskeleton – doesn’t grow, must shed skin/molt – Does this a series of times until it reaches full size Complete metamorphosis (eg. Butterfly/housefly) – Egg – Lava (specialized for feeding/growing) – Pupa/chrysalis – complete change – Emerges as adult specialized for dispersal and reproduction Plants Simple plants = algae (seaweeds = confined to sea) mosses ferns (confined to damp areas -male gamete can swim to egg) Successful plants = conifers flowering plants (independent of water for reproduction – able to colonize land) Flowering plants = morphology (Efficient water carrying xylem vessels reproduction) – Male pollen grains with hard coat = withstand desiccation (transfer to stigma of female – affect by environmental conditions) – Plants grasses = small inconspicuous flowers – pollen carried by wind – Brightly coloured flowers scent = attraction by insects (carry pollen to stigma) BY2 revision Page 9 – Brightly coloured flowers scent = attraction by insects (carry pollen to stigma) Male gametes travel through pollen tube to female part and egg (no longer needs film of water to reach egg) Fertilised egg develops into seed containing food store (with resistant coat) Key to success = relationship with animals (attract insects which pollinate/seed dispersal) enclosure of eggs in ovary and evolution of seed – Can survive adverse conditions Flowering plants are so successful because of†¦ – Short interval between flower production and setting of seed (few weeks) – Seed with food store = embryo develops until leaves are produced above ground (photosynthesis) – Seed protects embryo from desiccation other hazards = resistant coat – Leaves deciduous succulent = decay when fall to ground – humus produced. (rapid recycling of ions for reuse) BY2 revision Page 10 Translocation 24 May 2011 14:41 = transport of soluble organic materials, sucrose a nd amino acids (bi-directional movement) Products of photosynthesis = phloem. From source (area that makes the photosynthate – sucrose = leaves) to sink (where needed for growth/storage) Phloem structure – Sieve tubes (adapted for longitudinal flow of material = no nucleus ,have pores =sieve plates allows rapid flow of manufactured food substances) – Companion cells (linked to sieve tubes by plasmodesmata with fibres parenchyma, dense cytoplasm = lots of mitochondria – lots of metabolic activity, large nucleus – controls activity) – Phloem fibres – Phloem parenchyma â€Å"Mass flow† hypothesis – There is a passive flow of sucrose from source to sink – Does not account for observations such as movement in opposite directions at same time rate – Other hypotheses = diffusion, cytoplasmic streaming Evidence for translocation†¦ 1) Aphid (greenfly) – Feed (proboscis), leave embedded proboscis, liquid = sucrose amino acids. Sectioning stem shows proboscis is in phloem sieve tu be 2) Ringing Experiments – Cut off ring of bark (including phloem, leave xylem), immerse in water. Swelling above cut = accumulation of organic solutes, cannot continue. Will eventually die 3) Radioactive isotopes – Carbon-14 supplied to plant – fixed in glucose upon photosynthesis (14C6H12O6) – Stem cut, x-ray = phloem contains radioactivity BY2 revision Page 11 How to cite Biology By2 Revision, Papers

Oligopolies in the United States Economy free essay sample

There are many models of market structure in the field of economics. They include perfect competition on one end, monopoly on the other end, and competitive monopoly and oligopoly somewhere in the middle. In this paper, we will focus on the oligopoly structure because it is one of the strongest influences in the United States market. Although oligopolies can also be global, we will focus strictly on the United States here. We will define oligopoly, give key characteristics important to the oligopoly structure, explain why oligopolies form, then give an example of an oligopoly in todays economy. Finally, we will discuss the benefits and costs in this type of market structure. Oligopoly is defined as a market structure in which there are a few major firms dominating the market for a specific product or service. One key factor in oligopolies is that each firm/company explicitly takes other firms likely responses into account when setting prices, launching new products, etc. We will write a custom essay sample on Oligopolies in the United States Economy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For this reason, there is significant friendly competition between firms. They each know that it is in their own best interests to maintain a stable price, for if they lower their prices, their competitors ill do the same and knock out any advantage the original firm was hoping to gain with lower prices. If they raise their prices, the competitors will not follow suit and will therefore steal away all the customers of the higher priced product. Another key factor in oligopolies is that there are significant barriers to entry into this market. These barriers can include things such as high fixed costs, availability of resources, and brand loyalty. Many smaller companies simply do not have the cash or resources to compete with these large firms. Another characteristic of oligopolies is hat the percentages of market shares change very little from year to year and are dependent upon introduction of new products or acquisitions of smaller companies. For this reason, a benchmark of oligopolies is that they offer many Varieties in an attempt to gain some edge over their competitors. Why and how to oligopolies form? Oligopolies generally form over time as larger companies acquire or buy out smaller ones. They do this in order to gain market presence, new technology, more efficient production methods, etc. Oligopolies are sustained through price competition, brand loyalty, and incessant advertising. A perfect example of an oligopoly market structure in the United States is seen in the carbonated beverages industry. There are a few major brands, namely Coca Cola, Pepsi Co and Dr Pepper Snapple Group, who control the vast majority of the market, a combined 89. 6%.